Un avenir voilé par de faux espoirs (français) Un avenir voilé par de faux espoirs Extraits traduits par C.D.
Il y a 12 ans, j'ai été stupéfaite par ce que j'ai vu au cours d'un voyage en Afghanistan , venant de mon Pakistan natal. Je n'imaginais pas que dans un pays voisin et musulman, tant de femmes puissent se trouver dans les endroits publics. Chaque matin, la capitale afghane s'animait de la présence de jeunes femmes en route pour leur travail, la plupart habillées à l'occidentale, certaines en mini-jupes et talons hauts […]. L'université de Kaboul, avec plus d'étudiantes que d'étudiants, fut un autre sujet d'étonnement. Mais même alors, le bruit occasionnel des armes à feu et les explosions de bombes dans la ville -- gouvernée par le président pro-soviétique Najibullah -- nous rappelaient que ces libertés étaient fragiles. Les jeunes femmes sur le campus, serrant leurs notes dans la lumière de février, me dirent avec anxiété : " Si le Mudjaheddin l'emportent, ils nous forceront à porter le voile." L'encombrante burqa que les femmes doivent porter maintenant est devenue pour les Occidentaux le symbole des règles oppressives des Taliban.[…].Mais ce serait simpliste d'imaginer que simplement en se débarrassant des Taliban, on restaurera les droits humains des femmes là-bas. Au contraire, dans sa détermination à utiliser tous les moyens pour détruire Ben Laden et son réseau Al Qaeda, l'administration Bush risque d'exacerber les rivalités entre les tribus afghanes, dont les habitudes sont enracinées dans des traditions que peu d'Américains comprennent. Bien qu'on parle beaucoup en Occident d'établir un après-Taliban avec un gouvernement pluriel qui garantirait les droits des femmes et des minorités ethniques, les USA n'ont pas étudié sérieusement le rôle des femmes dans le futur gouvernement. Si l'histoire est de quelque utilité, ni un gouvernement mené par l'ex-roi Zahir Shah, ni un gouvernement dominé par l'Alliance du Nord n'accorderont facilement de droits aux femmes. Les changements dramatiques dans le sort fait aux femmes au cours du siècle écoulé montrent à quel point leur situation est fragile dans le tissu trop rapetassé de la société afghane. […] Lors de ma visite en 1989[…], bien qu'elles fussent très inquiètes à l'idée d'une victoire des fondamentalistes, les femmes étaient loin d'imaginer le degré d'oppression dans lequel elles allaient bientôt tomber. Après tout, elles avaient grandi dans une société musulmane relativement libérale; beaucoup à Kaboul et à Kandahar avaient eu des mères qui elles-mêmes travaillaient à l'extérieur --infirmières, médecins, ingénieures, journalistes, ouvrières et bien sûr, enseignantes. Les troupes soviétiques s'étaient retirées deux semaines avant mon arrivée, et tout le monde se posait la même question : le gouvernement Najibullah survivrait-il aux attaques des islamistes radicaux ? […]Assiégé, Najibullah mettait tout de son côté, et recrutait même des femmes pour l'aider. Dans une école d'entraînement à Kaboul, je rencontrai une force de réserve faite de femmes qui me dirent que leur mission était de d'arrêter tous les suspects Mudjaheddin. Elles savaient très bien quelle force redoutable les Mudjaheddin étaient devenus. Par leurs factions les plus radicales dans le Nord-Ouest du Pakistan, ils recevaient des millions de dollars d'aide en armes des USA, par le canal du dictateur militaire du Pakistan, et tout était utilisé pour l'objectif qu'ils atteindraient quelques années plus tard -- renverser Najibullah. J'ai demandé à l'époque à des autorités afghanes si ces menaces d'instabilité future risquaient de mettre en péril la liberté des femmes. La présidente du Conseil des femmes afghanes, Massuma Estamy Wardak, m'a répondu qu'au contraire, l'émancipation des femmes était fortement enracinée dans l'histoire afghane.[...] Tôt dans le vingtième siècle, le rois Amanullah, me dit-elle, avait introduit le costume occidental, envoyé les filles étudier à l'étranger, interdit la vente des femmes, ainsi que le lévirat (l'obligation pour une veuve d'épouser son beau-frère). Ce que Wardak et d'autres oubliaient de dire, c'est que le roi Amanullah fut renversé en 1929 par des chefs de tribus conservateurs révoltés par ses politiques libérales. Ensuite, le roi Zahir Shah, qui régna de 1933 à 1973 –et que l'ONU a choisi pour diriger le gouvernement post-Taliban– ralentit le rythme du changement. Certes les femmes parvinrent à obtenir plus de libertés que dans d'autres pays musulmans, mais à encourager ces libertés on risquait toujours un backlash des conservateurs. Depuis, le rôle des femmes a continué à être le thermomètre de la nature instable de la société afghane –et du danger d'essayer de changer les traditions en imposant aux gens des règles venues de l'extérieur. L'occupation soviétique qui suivit la sanglante révolution Saur de 1978 tenta d'imposer des changements à partir du haut en Afghanistan. Les militants du Parti populaire démocratique d'Afghanistan écumèrent les villages pour empêcher les Afghans de vendre leurs filles et obligèrent celles-ci à aller à l'école. Les hommes conservateurs des tribus se vengèrent en assassinant les militant du PDPA. Ces changements induisirent aussi un vaste exode des tribus afghanes. Quelques 3 millions d'Afghans s'enfuirent du pays. Beaucoup de ceux qui ont grandi comme des orphelins de guerre dans les camps du Pakistan sont devenus les Taliban d'aujourd'hui; les autres sont les critiques les plus acerbes du régime. Les groupes islamistes les plus militants, qui résistèrent à l'occupation soviétique, se regroupèrent sous la bannière du leader Mudjaheddin Gulbuddin Hekmatyar à Pehawar (Pakistan). Ils refusaient absolument que les femmes ne portent pas le voile et travaillent en dehors de la maison. Certains des affidés d'Hekmatyar jetèrent de l'acide sur les femmes habillées à l'occidentale à Kaboul. Quand j'ai interviewé Hekmatyar en 1986, j'ai été surprise de rencontrer un homme à la voix douce qui parlait très bien l'anglais. Mais parmi ses supporters incluaient le Jamaat-e-islami, le parti islamiste radical du Pakistan qui impose la ségrégation des sexes à l'université de Karachi en jetant de l'acide sur les étudiantes. Hekmatyar a refusé de se joindre à l'Alliance du Nord soutenue par les USA dans sa bataille contre les Taliban. Mais beaucoup d'autres leaders Mudjaheddin sont membres de cette Alliance, et même ceux qui sont moins radicaux que Hekmatyar punissent les femmes qui refusent de porter la burqa. Les croyances tribales en la soumission des femmes vont bien au-delà des Taliban. […] Parmi les 4 millions de personnes qui ont fui l'Afghanistan dans les vingt dernière années, beaucoup sont des femmes, et beaucoup aimeraient retourner dans leur pays une fois les Taliban renversés. [..] Cependant, la conduite passée de l'Alliance du Nord n'offre pas d'indications que les droits des femmes seront pris au sérieux sous le prochain régime. Un pastis de leaders tribaux plus ou moins conservateurs, l'Alliance n'est unie que pour combattre les Taliban. Une réunion récente des leaders anti-Taliban à Peshawar a montré que les droits des femme ne figurent pas à leur ordre du jour. De plus, au fur et à mesure que les bombes américaines tuent des civils, les Pachtounes se radicalisent. Le gouvernement US n'a pas eu beaucoup de succès dans ses efforts pour désolidariser les Pachtounes modérés des Taliban.[…] Tandis que les bombardements américains continuent, des milliers de Pachtounes des tribus se réunissent sur la frontière afghano-pakistanaise pour combattre aux côtés des Taliban. Les analystes politiques avec lesquels j'ai parlé au Pakistan prédisent que même si les Taliban sont évincés de la région, ils prendront le maquis dans les collines et attaqueront le nouveau gouvernement. De plus, l'Alliance du Nord pourrait sombrer dans des querelles intestines. Ainsi, bien qu'il n'y ait aucun doute pour moi que les femmes seront un peu mieux sans les Taliban, je me demande ce qui va se passer. A moins qu'il y ait un moyen d'assurer une paix durable, les droits des femmes n'ont aucune chance en Afghanistan.
A Future Veiled in False Hopes
Twelve years ago, I was astonished by what I found on a trip from my native Pakistan to Afghanistan. I couldn't have imagined a neighboring Muslim country with so many women in public places. Each morning, the Afghan capital was abuzz with young professionals on their way to work, most dressed in Western clothes and some even in miniskirts and high heels as they vied with their fashion-conscious counterparts in Paris. Kabul University, where I saw more female than male students, was another surprise. But even then, the occasional gunfire and bomb blasts in the city -- ruled by Soviet-supported President Najibullah -- were a reminder that these freedoms could prove elusive. Young women on campus, clutching their notepads in the streaming February sunlight, told me apprehensively, "If the mujaheddin take over, they will force us to veil." The encumbering full-lengthburqasthat women now have to wear have become a symbol for Westerners of the ruling Taliban government's oppressive policies. Even President Bush acknowledged as much last week when he condemned the current regime under which "women are imprisoned in their homes, and are denied access to basic health care and education." But it would be an oversimplification to imagine that simply ousting the Taliban will restore basic human rights to women there. Indeed, in its determination to use whatever means necessary to destroy Osama bin Laden and his al Qaeda network, the administration is in danger of exacerbating the rivalries among Afghanistan's tribes, whose practices are shrouded in traditions few Americans comprehend. Even though there has been much talk in the West about how to establish a broad-based post-Taliban government that would guarantee the rights of women and ethnic minorities, the United Nations has not seriously begun addressing the role of women in any future form of government. If history is any guide, neither a government led by the exiled former king, Mohammed Zahir Shah, nor one dominated by the Northern Alliance would readily grant women freedom. Instead, the dramatic changes in women's fortunes over the past century are testimony to their fragile position in Afghanistan's oft-rent social fabric. I got a clear sense of that during my 1989 visit. Although many Afghan women I spoke with expressed trepidation about a takeover by Islamic fundamentalists, they could not have predicted how oppressive their lot would soon become. After all, they grew up in a relatively liberal Muslim society; many in Kabul and Kandahar had working mothers -- nurses and doctors, engineers, journalists, factory workers and, of course, teachers. Soviet forces had withdrawn from the country just two weeks before my arrival, and the question foremost on everyone's mind was whether the Soviet-backed Najibullah government would survive the onslaught by the Islamist radicals. As if anticipating his eventual death at the hands of Taliban fundamentalists, the embattled Najibullah was clearly taking no chances -- and he was even recruiting women to help him. At a training school in Kabul, I came across a female trainee reserve force engaged in combat exercises. They told me that their job was to arrest and hand over mujaheddin suspects to authorities. They knew full well what a formidable force the mujaheddin had become. With their most radical factions in Northern Pakistan, they were receiving millions of dollars' worth of arms from the United States, funneled through Pakistan's military ruler, all directed at the goal they would accomplish a few years later -- removing Najibullah from power. I asked Afghan officials then whether such threats of future instability might put women's freedom on the line. The president of the Afghan Women's Council at the time, Massuma Esmaty Wardak, argued that, on the contrary, women's emancipation was deeply rooted in Afghan history. She pointed out that the country's most famous reformer, King Amanullah, who was inspired by Turkey's secular nation builder Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, encouraged sweeping changes for women in the early 20th century. He introduced Western dress, she pointed out, sent girls to study abroad, banned the sale of women, raised the marriage age and abolished the tribal custom known as levirate (where a widow is obliged to marry her brother-in-law). What Wardak and others I talked to failed to mention was that King Amanullah was ousted in 1929, after a brief reign, when conservative tribesmen revolted against his liberal policies. Thereafter, King Zahir Shah, Afghanistan's longest-reigning monarch (1933-1973) -- whom the U.N. has now selected to head the post-Taliban government -- slowed down the changes for women. Yes, women came to enjoy greater liberation than in some other Muslim countries, but encouraging freedom also risked provoking a backlash from the conservatives. Ever since, the role of women has continued to reflect the volatile nature of Afghan society -- and of the dangers of trying to alter traditions by imposing outside standards on the people. The Soviet occupation that followed the bloody communist Saur Revolution in 1978 attempted to force top-down changes in Afghanistan. Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) workers fanned out into the villages to stop Afghans from selling their daughters and coerced the girls instead to go to school. Conservative tribesmen retaliated by murdering PDPA workers. These changes also triggered a vast exodus of Afghan tribes. Some 3 million Afghans fled the country. Many of those who grew up as orphans of war in Pakistan's refugee camps have become today's Taliban; others are that regime's fiercest critics. The most militant Islamist groups who resisted the Soviet influence banded together under mujaheddin leader Gulbuddin Hekmatyar in Peshawar, northern Pakistan. They objected fiercely to Muslim women not wearing the veil and to their working outside the home. Some of his supporters threw acid on women wearing Western dress in Kabul. When I interviewed Hekmatyar in Karachi in 1986, I was surprised to find a soft-spoken man who was fluent in English. But his supporters included Pakistan's Jamaat-e-Islami, the radical Islamist party that enforced gender segregation at Karachi University with acid attacks on female students. (This group has now given an ultimatum to the Pakistani government to stop supporting the U.S.-led anti-terrorist coalition or be overthrown.) Hekmatyar has refused to join the Northern Alliance now backed by the United States in its battle with the Taliban. But many other mujaheddin leaders are members of that alliance, and even less radical ones than Hekmatyar punish women who refuse to wear a burqa. The tribal beliefs in the submission of women go far beyond the Taliban. The stability that the Taliban offered when it snatched power from the warring mujaheddin in 1996 came at a further cost to women. Made up of ethnic Pashtuns, the Taliban enforced the strict Pashtunwali code of honor that requires women to be treated as the property of their men. The militia barredwomen from working in the professions. Without female teachers, schools soon closed. The Taliban issued a decree that forbade all girls from going to school. Women who organized the early protests against the ragtag militia were beaten back. Only two ways of earning a living were left open to them -- beggary and prostitution. Last week I spoke with two Afghan women who have been helping refugees as U.N. staff. They told of women's isolation, cowering in their houses behind darkened windows so that they cannot be seen from the street. Few can read. Many are depressed. Nafisa Nezam, who was in Northern Afghanistan until last month, said that the Taliban have "brought about a new interpretation of 'jihad' to mean fighting women who wear lipstick, nail polish and jewelry." Some have reputedly had their fingers cut off for painting their nails. There have been some brave voices of dissent. Afghan women in Pakistan have banded together as the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA). The group's members told me in Islamabad in 1999 that they lived in mortal fear of being discovered. They know how the extremists treat women who dissent. RAWA's founding president, Meena, was murdered in 1987 -- allegedly by the mujaheddin -- for speaking out against the fundamentalists. About half of the 4 million or so people who fled Afghanistan over the past 20 years are women, and many of them would love to return to their home country once the Taliban is overthrown. Among them, Tahira Shairzai, a former schoolteacher in Kabul who now works in the United States, told me she favors the U.N. choice of an interim government headed by King Zahir Shah. The 86-year-old exiled monarch shares Pashtun ethnicity with the Taliban, but he is popular because he treated ethnic groups even-handedly during his 40-year rule of Afghanistan. Tahira also holds out hope that the Northern Alliance, which allows girls' schools to remain open in the area it controls, will take a positive attitude toward working women. However, the past behavior of the Alliance leaders offers little indication that women's rights will be taken seriously under the next regime. A mishmash of conservative and more moderate tribal leaders, the Alliance is united for the sole purpose of combating the Taliban. A recent meeting ofanti-Taliban leaders in Peshawar demonstrated that women's rights do not figure in their deliberations. What's more, as U.S. bombs hit civilians, the Pashtuns are becoming even more radicalized. The United States has had little success in wooing moderate Pashtuns away from the Taliban -- a move that the administration recognizes is necessary not only to win the current war but because Afghanistan's future stability depends upon cooperation among tribal factions. As the U.S. bombing continues, thousands of armed Pashtun tribesmen are gathering on the Pakistan-Afghan border to fight alongside the Taliban.Political analysts I have spoken with in Pakistan predict that even if the Taliban is routed, it will likely withdraw into the hills and fight the new government. Moreover, the Northern Alliance could plunge into internecine strife. So although there is no doubt in my mind that women will fare somewhat better if the Taliban is overthrown, I wonder what comes next. Unless there is a means of ensuring durable peace, women's rights do not have a fighting chance in Afghanistan. Nafisa Hoodbhoy, a journalist who worked for 16 years for Dawn newspaper in Karachi, Pakistan, taught as a Ford Fellow at Amherst College this year, with a focus on women and politics in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran.
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